Blog 8 Education in the immediate post war era.

The incoming Attlee Government was faced with a Ministry of Education Pamphlet on The Nation’s Schools ⁱ which set out the basis of education arising from the 1944 Education Act. It notes that Nursery Schools were originally set up to provide a suitable environment and proper care and training for little children whose home environment could not provide these things. The aim was to provide medical care, training in good habits and such education as appropriate to their age. This was achieved by play and creative activities, activities for bodily development and by learning about the common objects they found and communicating with others. This was continue in the infant school with attention to play and the opportunity to experiment and thus find solutions to the numerous problems with which they were faced. The pamphlet noted that young children have their own special needs and require teaching and handing in a special way. The aim of the Junior school was to use their lively interests and curiosity about the world to stimulate their mastery of reading, writing and arithmetic in dealing with simple everyday matters that concern them. Differences in ability and aptitude now show themselves and children have a right to an education appropriate to their needs.

In considering Secondary Education other matters have to be considered including the future requirements of the pupils. They must be introduced to the wider aspects of education including literature, music and art, the achievements of civilisation in politics, science, craftmanship, and a development of the use in all its forms of their mother tongue, The pamphlet sets out in detail the three forms of secondary education. On Grammar Schools they note both the failure of some pupils to benefit from that education and also the fact that many who would benefit do not in fact receive that form of education. What was recognised was the need to increase the number of pupils continuing their school life up to 18. There was a shortage of persons with higher qualifications particularly in science with a desire for a substantial increase in the number of graduates from university. The case for Technical School Education was made at length. Concern was expressed that this had become seen as a second best to a Grammar school education. A second concern was the suspicion that it was vocational and not a sound liberal secondary education. The pamphlet stressed that the aim was not to produce little engineers or builders nicely adjusted to industrial requirements, but rather, through the interest created by a curriculum with a broad relation to future careers, to send the pupils equipped with a good general education that will stand them in good stead in whatever occupation they may enter, and will certainly enable them to embrace skilled employment with interest and competence. The pamphlet drew attention to the needs of girls noting that the field of employment for women in industry was rapidly widening with the possibilities for girls yet to be explored. The pamphlet also noted that what was true of the technical schools was also true of the commercial schools. With regard to Secondary Modern Schools, there was a consideration of the changes within industry where there was a need for higher skills but also the growth of routine repetitive process work. The pamphlet considers that practical activity would give stimulus to learning and raise standards in formal studies. They also linked this with what they consider as the requirements of future home building. They end the discussion on these forms of schools by stating their objective of ‘parity of esteem’! They note that the problem of selection cannot be avoided but that the methods of selection have not yet been perfected.

The pamphlet discusses the question of special education, noting that it is now the duty of Local Education Authorities to provide special educational for children suffering from any form of disability of mind or body. The aim of special educational is to provide for each handicapped child an education that is adapted to their needs. This could be provided in a special school. The Pamphlet concludes that ‘upon education of the people of this country the fate of the country depends.

One of the proposals within the 1944 Education Act was for the establishment of County Colleges in order that young people should continue their education up to the age of 18. The Ministry of Education Pamphlet No 3 ⁱⁱ entitled Youth Opportunities sets out in detail the expectations for such colleges. What interests me in this pamphlet is the approach that it takes towards the young people that are to be educated in these colleges. The motive for the colleges came from a conviction that education would increase the happiness and welfare of the individual, and that it would be good for the Country and the communities within it. There was a believe that wage-earning occupation could not provide the proper education needed by those leaving school but that the discipline and approach of an educational institution was needed.

The Pamphlet shows a good understanding of adolescents. It notes that the process of growing up, to become and adult instead of a child, is not easy. The pamphlet is aware that the teacher of adolescents has to be aware of the contradictory behavour of the adolescent that is shown in a variety of ways. Understanding this, the next stage is to plan for their needs to be met. The student must feel that they have a place in the community and that the student has status and prestige. The student must have a satisfying relationship with the adult members of the community. This relationship is different from that teacher-pupil or the University tutor- student relationship. It must combine friendly, cooperative with the authoritative, a relationship the student can rely on and respect. The student must feel that they are attending the college for a well defined purpose. It is important that all teachers should be well informed about adolescence.

The pamphlet makes very clear that the field of education is one field, disparaging the view of thinking in terms of different institutions. The scheme must meet all the needs of the students, vocational and non vocational. In this light, the pamphlet views the student common room as a focal point enabling the students to learn the art of living together and organising their own society. The aims of the college are set out. To help young people live a healthy life by providing means of developing their physical skills; to have knowledge and skills in a wide ranging areas of study in art, literature, science, knowledge about their own country and those throughout the world, and understanding of civic affairs and cooperative involvement in a democratic society; to develop their character so as to be tolerant and kindly in dealing with their fellows and have a balanced and independent view on life.

I am left with the question as to how much of what is set out in the pamphlet could be said to be true of how we treat young people of the present day. The County Colleges never came into existence. But did the aspirations for treating young people also get lost somewhere along the path of history.

An interesting critique of the 1944 Act is provided by G.C.T. Giles entitled ‘The New School Tie’ ⁱⁱⁱ . He notes that “Our system as it exists now is a caste system reflecting the class divisions of our society. Out of every hundred children, two go to Public Schools, thirteen or fourteen others manage in one way or another to secure a secondary or technical education, the rest begin and end their schooling in elementary schools”. He quotes the McNair Report to the effect that the truth is that we have not yet emancipated ourselves from the tradition of educating our children on the cheap. He states that we must discard all ideas of old school tie privilege, of opportunities limited by social or financial circumstances of class discrimination; we must substitute self-discipline for authoritarian discipline; and free the curriculum from the old classical and academic tradition, putting in its place the new discoveries of science and psychological research. The curriculum of the Primary School must be thought of in terms of experience rather than of knowledge to be gained and facts stored. He noted the undue influence of the scholarship examination causing anxiety to parents and a concentration on the three R’s among teachers. Much of the backwardness of children at the later stages can be traced back to the large class in the junior school, which makes individual attention on the part of the teacher impossible. He asks what is meant by equality of opportunity, noting that in the secondary school the long history of class distinction, inequality and segregation have left there mark. The "educational pyramid" is most obvious, with the Public Schools, Grammar schools, technical schools and modern schools forming a regular graded hierarchy. The average parent demands for his children a better chance than he had himself, and as good a chance as anybody else's children. Primarily, it means the chance of a career or at least of something better than an unskilled, uncertain, blind-alley job. There is nothing to be said in favour of a system which subjects children to the strain of a competitive examination on which not only their future schooling, but their future careers may depend. Today democracy is on the move. The common man is marching towards his just and true inheritance. Part of that inheritance is equality of educational opportunity, a career open to the talents, the right to a full and free education, which will help him to be master of his own destiny. He adds, nor is the problem merely a social one. The present system of education was dangerously inadequate to meet the economic needs of the country in the grimmest struggle we have ever had to face - the World War against Fascism. All existing, secondary schools - the grammar school, the technical school, the modern school, and the so-called Public School - have developed in an undemocratic social system. They are vocational schools in the narrowest sense of the word. The Public Schools provide for the predestined leaders, the secondary and technical schools for the technicians; the modern schools for the hewers of wood and drawers of water: "whose future employment will not demand any measure of technical skill and knowledge". This is contrary to the aspirations of the British people, and fails to meet the needs of a planned economy. All men and women have a vital part to play in the governing of their own country, and in controlling its elected rulers and appointed administrators. The future offers to all a wider outlook of leisure and culture, but the full enjoyment of music, art and literature is only possible if the way is opened early in life to these and other expressions of civilized life. Education is not a matter merely of intellectual achievement. It is a matter of all-round growth and development, physical, intellectual, social and spiritual. He goes on to consider the structure of education in The Unites States and in Russia, both countries which have a Comprehensive system of education. Finally he goes on to consider the proposals for County Colleges noting that for the first time in its history the nation accepts a measure of responsibility for the general welfare of its young people, even after they leave school.

The tripartite system of education,with Grammar, Modern and Technical Schools did by no means find universal support. The Government published the Pamphlet, The New Secondary Education ^iv in order to justify its decision. In this they state ‘The prejudices of three hundred years cannot be eradicated by one Act of Parliament, nor their effects wiped away by one administration, especially while labour and materials are short and mountains of arrears of building repairs and re-equipment are waiting to be done. Until education in the State secondary schools is as good as the best that money can buy outside the State system, so long will inequalities remain. For that matter, even when that end has been achieved, if people prefer to pay high fees for education less good or no better than that which the State provides free of charge to its taxpayers, there is certainly no reason, in a free country, why they should not spend their money in that way. Variety in education is a needed spice. But no State money will go to a school which does not provide places for children from the State primary schools either free or for fees paid by the local education authority.’ In effect what this statement does is to undermine the whole concept of parity of education. As long as any section of the community is able for whatever reason to establish separate schools then the concept of a universal system of education in which all children are treated equally and provided with the education that meets their particular needs is untenable.

I was particularly interested in the comments regarding testing, assessing and examining of pupils in the Modern schools. The pamphlet states ‘In schools that have to cope with the wide ranges of ability and aptitude that are found in all modern schools, it is impracticable to combine a system of external examinations, which presupposes a measure of uniformity, with the fundamental conception of modern school education, which insists on variety. Internal tests, based on the syllabus of work actually covered by the individual pupils, rather than on any preconceived notion of the standards appropriate to a particular age, will alone adequately meet the case. The traditional oral and written examinations are suitable for certain subjects. They should be supplemented by an inspection of actual things done and made by the pupils and by an oral test of their power to describe them. Such testing will do more than merely ensure the maintenance of standards. It will help the head and his staff to follow the progress of each pupil, and to learn whether he is following the course best suited to him within the school or whether perhaps he has disclosed special aptitudes or abilities of a kind that would be best suited by transfer to another school.’ There are some valuable points made in this paragraph which apply to other schools as well as the Modern school. In practice, what happened as we shall see later, that as pupils continued in such schools beyond the compulsory age of 15, there came a demand for some form of external examination at 16. Various examinations were used, with pressure to be allowed to take the O-levels available to Grammar school pupils. Much later, the Secondary Certificate of Education which was based on somewhat similar ideas to that expressed above, provided an examination that tested what had been taught, was pupil orientated and to some extent teacher controlled. It was a far better examination structure that others but its basic principles were lost when unified with GCEs to become GCSEs. This is of course moving ahead of our self in the study of the development of education.

It is quite clear that the general attitude towards education in this period was superior to that which exists today. Further proof of this statement is provided by the Clarke Report ^v This report makes clear that “Unless our education and our social, industrial and commercial life are in gear, and unless we provide a proper balance in our schools between the needs of the child as a child and his needs as a growing individual and citizen, our increasing commitments on education will not produce full dividends” They go on to note that “"the young should live in a wholesome climate and drink in good from every quarter, so that like a wind bringing health from healthy lands, some influence from noble works may from childhood upward constantly fall on ear and eye and insensibly draw them into sympathy and harmony with the beauty of reason." In words that could be noted today they state that “Boys who lead a gangster life after school hours frequently do it because they have nowhere to do the things they want to do, no outlet for their urge towards adventure and experiment, no means of exerting their capabilities. In urban areas the great majority of children have no space, in the home, the community, or anywhere else, where they can indulge in their normal and proper activities; there is an urgent need for a great many more junior clubs, play and recreation centres, libraries and playrooms, in the charge of leaders who should be specially trained for the work, to give the children what they want after school hours and during holidays.” The Report notes that though a child may be glad to escape from the real or imagined restraints of school, he may yet find entering industrial employment a disturbing experience. Every endeavour should be made to help the young worker to adjust himself or herself to the conditions of the new life, and to control those conditions so as to help a boy or girl to develop normally. He or she he should be given some insight into the organisation and purposes of the concern of which he is a new member, and of the significance of what he is first given to do. Few things can be more depressing to youthful enthusiasm, initiative and morale than staying too long in a single limited occupation. The employment of juveniles merely as cheap labour can no longer be tolerated. The objects of education and employment are not the same. The object of education is men and women; industry aims at producing economic goods. The object of employment is the product; in education it is the process that matters. In industry the worker is part of a process ending in goods; in education he is an end in himself. The principle is clear. The aims of education are given by the purpose of man, which is to be more than an instrument of production. But production is a necessary part of man's activities, essential to social life; preparation for it is a proper object of education so long as it does not interfere with the prior claims of the full development of individual. The danger to be avoided is that of subordinating the whole personality to a narrow conception of industry's needs. The Report notes the value of learning by doing, of practical activity in terms of the use of various tools. The note the needs for adaptability through a training in the powers of observation and deduction, an alert mind, and willingness to tackle something new; and in the practical field, manual dexterity. The Report also considers the wider aspects of education, for leisure, as a compensation for routine industrial work and for the wider social and personal needs of young people. They have personal and social needs which in present circumstances can best be met by providing them with opportunities for voluntary and self-chosen groupings for the pursuit of activities they wish to undertake together. The official connotation of the word "education" has added a richness and depth which we must not lose. The final two chapters deal at length with the question of the health of young people and the contentious issue of the moral factor. On this latter subject, faced with divergent views they gave no prescriptions.

A second Clarke Report ^vi dealt with the needs of children and young people out of school. Like the first report it was child centred and called for action by Government, Local Authorities and other bodies involved with children and young people. The Report quoted ‘Some Thought concerning Education’ from John Locke (1632 – 1704) "Recreation is as necessary as Labour or Food. But because there can be no Recreation without Delight, which depends not always on Reason, but oftener on Fancy, it must be permitted Children not only to divert themselves, but to do it after their own Fashion, provided it be innocently, and without Prejudice to their Health ... All the Plays and Diversions of Children should be directed towards good and useful Habits, or else they will introduce ill ones." The Report states the conviction that the child should have opportunities for activities which should fill him with a sense of enjoyment and delight, therefore they wish to pass a vote of confidence in fun as a powerful educational agent. They note that for young children play is essential because, as they play, they develop and express themselves wholeheartedly. Children are full of curiosity, and to satisfy that curiosity they must have space. They want to explore, to build, to make, to experiment with water, clay, sand, paint and so on. Left to their own devices with a few simple materials they will engage in constructive play in many guises. Imaginative play goes on all the time and is very varied. Children love of movement need for space. As they grow older their interests develop but physical activity is still important for which they need space, equipment and opportunities both indoor and outdoor. They need to make their fun in their own way. The Report goes on to note that a marked change in the child's interests is often seen after the age of eleven, physical energy becomes still more evident, the tendency is to operate as a member of a 'gang' and feels the need for a comradeship that covers most of his activities and enthusiasms. Later, boys and girls begin to take an interest in each other. The Report exhorts that the Minister should make an urgent appeal to local education authorities to apply their powers under the Education Acts so as to increase and improve by every possible means facilities for the play and recreation of children out of school hours. A third Report ^vii of the Central Advisory Council for Education (England) looked into the question of the ‘The Education of the Young Worker’.

One of the main problems faced by the Government was the provision of a sufficient number of trained scientist, technicians and engineers. The Barlow Report^viii stated that if we are to maintain our position in the world and restore and improve our standard of living, we have no alternative but to strive for that scientific achievement without which our trade will wither, our Colonial Empire will remain undeveloped and our lives and freedom will be at the mercy of a potential aggressor. The Report recognised the need to provide addition teachers and scientist. They noted that less that 2% of the population went to University where as 5% showed that they had the required ability. There existed an ample reserve of ability to allow the number at university to be doubled whilst maintaining standards. It was clear that there was a massive discrepancy between the numbers going to University from the Pubic schools compared with the remainder of the school population. The Report supported many of the opinions expressed in the Percy Report ^ix. In order to provide technologists of the highest possible quality, the Report asked that urgent consideration should be given to the development of two or three Institutes of Technology, preferably in University Cities, whose aim should be to provide graduate and post-graduate courses and to conduct research of a standard at least equal to that demanded of candidates for doctorate degrees in the Universities.

The immediate post war period was a time when the nation faced new challenges. There was a deep understanding that to meet those challenges new approaches were needed. This gave scope for a wide ranging discussion as to how this could be done. Central to those discussions was a debate about the future of education from that of the infant up to the needs of post graduates. Much of this debate was extremely positive. It was a time when ideas could be set out that challenged the conventional wisdom that had governed decisions for centuries. Many of these proposals were adopted. Sadly many of the progressive ideas were lost along the way. Viewed from the perspective of modern day processed and methods in education the conclusion I draw is that the general view on education, an even more so the progressive view, has much that would make modern processes and methods better adapted to the needs of all concerned. Economic progress and technological advances do not necessarily mean social progress. We too readily consider economics as the driving force of life when in fact it is the quality of life and the cohesion of social life that is of utmost importance. The immediate post war generation had a greater sense of this reality that we have at present.

Scribart 07.05.20

iThe Nations Schools (1945) Ministry of Education Pamphlet No. 1

iiYouth Opportunities (1945) Further Education in County Colleges. Ministry of Education Pamphlet No 3

iii The New School Tie by G.C.T. Giles London: Pilot Press Ltd

ivThe New Secondary Education (1947) Ministry of Education Pamphlet No 9

vA First Inquiry into the transition from school to independent life. Report of the Central Advisory Council for Education (England) (1947) The Clarke Report

viThe Second Report of the Central Advisory Council for Education (England) (1948) Out of School (Clarke Report)

vii1948 Clarke Report The Education of the Young Worker: the third report by the Central Advisory Council for Education (England).

viii Scientific Man-Power The Barlow Report (1946)

ixReport of the Special Committee on Higher Technological Education (The Percy Report) 1945