Blog 3. Why do we teach? What is the purpose of education​

The first thing that has to be said about education, in the terms to which it is usually referred, is that it is dominated by the question of class. Education is seen, in all its aspects, as a matter of concern of and for the dominant class in any society. The second, and related point to make is that education is seen in terms of ‘Letters’. Whole areas and aspects of knowledge are excluded from a consideration within this narrow approach to the subject of education. Two phrases, in common use as I was growing up, ‘a man of letters’ and an ‘educated gentleman’ fully represent the reason given for education, with education being for a minority, and especially for men who wEducationEducationould rule society. There have, of course, been developments of these ideas but not substantial change. Boyd, in his The History of Western Educationⁱ, begins with the Greeks and we have here an illustration of what is to be found throughout History. In Athens, Socrates sought to prepare an elite group of young men for their role as leaders of the State by encouraging them to develop their ideas through questioning and analysing their thoughts. In Sparta the emphasis was on training young men to be soldiers with an emphasis on physical training and the need to act and not to think!ⁱⁱ. Two aspects of education, training to be leaders, training to serve the State. The traditional concern has been for a ‘liberal education’ for the upper classes, particularly those destined for Government. As boys rather than girls were being groomed for important positions in life, secondary schools for boys were in the vast majority. ⁱⁱⁱ

It is important, at an early stage to recognise and understand what is meant by the State. It is commonly considered as a form relating to the whole of society and to be neutral, standing above that society. This is how the ruling elite wishes the state to be viewed. The correct view of the state is to recognise that it is the form through which the ruling elite maintain their control over society.^iv There was a close connection, at an earlier stage in the history of education, between the Church and the State. Their aims were in some ways similar, but also different. In the first book on education written in English, The Boke of the Govenour, Sir Thomas Elyot writes that the prime aim of education is ‘to fit the governing classes for their duties as servants of the State’.^v The Tudor nobility had no interest in scholarly education but realised the importance of education in helping them to achieve their ambitions, this meant studies in peace and war.^vi There followed an increasing demand for the State to take responsibity for schools. A view shared by Napoleon who wanted schools and colleges to be his servants^vii. In the later chapters of Boyd’s book, reference is made to the Soviet Union and their commitment to a public system of education of high quality as an instrument of control and planning^viii.

The nature of the State affected the system of education. In Rome, the bureaucratic method of government led to a centralisation of the State and fewer local officials.^ix The growth of towns^x had change much in the structure of life in mediaeval times. The effect was even greater with the change from medieval feudalism, in which oratory and a classical learning were dominant, to a free enterprise capitalist system, in which contracts and patents became of great importance, meaning that the study of law became a necessity. Louis Rene de Chalotais (1701 – 1785) in his Essay on Moral Education argued that education depends only on the State because the State has the inalienable right to instruct its members. Children of the State ought to be brought up as members of the State. As to who would be students, that depends on the character and needs of the State. He complained that “The Brethren teach reading and writing to people who would be better if they only learned to draw and handle plane and file, but who no longer want to do so once they are educated. The wellbeing of society requires that the knowledge of the common people should not extend beyond their occupations^xi.

In the early days of education, a large role was played by the Church and religion. A clear example being in seventh century Judaism where education centred on the making men wise by knowing and keeping the laws of Moses^xii. For men like Thomas a Kempis their main concern was with morals and religion^xiii. A similar approach was taken by Erasmus^xiv (1466 – 1536) for whom the idea of scholarship was a means of grace. For him culture was a way to good livng. He considered that the young mind should receive the seeds of piety, leading them to love and learn liberal studies, to be prepared for the duties of life and be accustomed to good manners. Erasmus developed his ideas in De Civilates Morun Puericulum. As Boyd comments, after reviewing these ideas, the classical education he recommended might suit a scholarly caste of the aristocracy of letters, but not for those involved in the world of work^xv. Another person who followed this line of thinking was Juan Luis Vives (1492 – 1540) who considered the aim of education to be goodness attained by a classical study of Latin and Greek literature^xvi.

One effect of the Reformation was on the authority of the Church. New structures of education had to be created to meet the needs of civic and political leaders and ministers of religion, but also for the people at large^xvii. Luther^xviii (1483 – 1546) also had as his main concern the promotion of religion, he understood that a knowledge of ancient languages was important for the study of the Bible. He did go further in realising that “the prosperity of the city does not consist in great treasures, strong walls and fine houses, but in clever, wise, honourable, well educated citizens who can acquire and utilise every treasure and possession.” Interestingly he questioned why, when cities spend large sums of money on roads, fortifications, on the army and equipping soldiers, they do not spend an equal amount on providing for schools and teachers. The list of people who saw education in this light can be extended. John Calvin^xix (1509 – 1569) saw the importance of education for the promotion of religion in individual and social life. He too saw the need for secular education. Ignatius of Loyola^xx (1491 – 1556), the founder of the Society of Jesus, followed the same line within the Church of Rome. Johann Freidrich Herbart^xxi (1776 – 1841) who had a major influence upon education also saw the whole task of education in the concept of morality. He associated this with five moral ideas: inner freedom, completeness or perfection, goodwill towards other, rights in terms of property and other social institutions, and equity in that people should be dealt with in accordance with their acts of good or ill. Tuiskon Ziller^xxii (1817- 1882) had a slightly different approach in that he saw the main concern of education to be morality in terms of submission to authority, reflection on authority, voluntary submission to authority, love of authority, moral and religious self education, and service to the community.

The demand of the new society developing post reformation was for an education suited to men of affairs. The aim to produce full rounded individuals, gentlemen with the adornment of letters. A key text was The Book of the Courtier written by Baldassare Castiglione (1478 – 1529)^xxiii. He broke with the tradition of education as training for a particular office and revived the ideal that a vocation is but one element in the life of a complete human being^xxiv. Side by side with the individualistic doctrine there grew a belief that education could be used to prepare everyone for service to the State^xxv. However, this view was limited. Adam Smith (1723 – 1790) agreed with those who, like Louise-Rene de La Chalotais, believed that education was a public concern, but argued against any interference with the education of the middle and upper classes who, in his view, could be safely trusted to educate themselves. For the common people he insisted on a minimum of instruction in reading, writing, accounts, geometry and mechanics. Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762 – 1834) in his Address to the German People expressed his concern about German Society and the need for a moral regeneration in order that Germany might become a leader of the civilised world. He saw the means of this to be in education but in order to achieve his aim he proposed that children be separated from the corrupt society they were one day to reform^xxvi.

Education could not be restricted to the elite few who were destined to lead the nation. It became clear to enlightened leaders that at least the elements of learning had to passed on to the people. John Knox (1505 – 1572) in The first book of Discipline argued that neither the sons of the rich nor the poor, if they were apt, should be allowed to neglect learning but continue it so that the commonwealth may benefit. His recommendations for an education for social ends was accepted neither by the Church nor Parliament^xxvii. However, the extension of education could also be seen in a different light. The harsh conditions, created by the industrial revolution and the growth of manufacturing, led to an increased number of working men in places like London. A fear of revolution led to restrictions on the amount of education proper for working men. However the purpose of education was seen as a means of rescuing children for a christian way of life. They were to be taught to be docile and sober. It was seen as a form of social control^xxviii. The Government had to concern itself with education in order to diminish the glaring evils of the factory system^xxix. Sir William Petty (1623 – 1687) suggested that ordinary schools be converted into trades schools and workmen’s colleges so that the study of things and actions would lead to a knowledge of all trades^xxx .

There are positive and negative aspects of education. Claude Adrien Helvetius believed that “If two people were brought up under identical conditions and enjoyed the like education, their minds would be exactly the same” From this it follows that the educator can make what he likes of his pupils by controlling the circumstances of their lives and by the education given to them. A view not generally accepted at the time^xxxi. Marquis de Condorcet (1743 – 1794), whilst recognising that not all men are equal in original capacity, also recognised that education greatly accentuates this inequality. Education is necessary to develop the diverse gifts of all citizens to enable them to contribute to and share in the wellbeing of society. He saw education in its widest sense but restricted the role of the State to facts believing that the State should not interfere with opinions of politics, morals or religion^xxxii. Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746 – 1827) considered the role of the teacher to direct the process of the natural growth and to prepare the child to take the place in society for which his social rank and personal ability marked him out. He saw an intricate relationship between the development of society a a whole and that of the individual human being^xxxiii. Charles Darwin and Karl Marx both considered that education should be judged by its social ends^xxxiv.

Occasionally, in the History of Education, we get a glimpse of other possibilities. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) included within his works the idea of education as a training in the mental faculty and suggested that the object of knowledge is to give men power over nature.^xxxv Amos Comenius (1592 – 1670) saw that the acquisition of knowledge was an essential part of education. It was not that he wanted men to have a thorough knowledge of all sciences, rather an understanding of the principles, the causes and purpose of the main facts about the world. He wanted every person to have sufficient information that throughout life they would never meet anything about which they could not give a sober judgement or turn it to proper use without error^xxxvi. John Locke (1652 – 1704) in Thoughts on Education states that the aim of education is the acquisition of certain forms of knowledge and skills. In Essay Concerning Human Understanding he speaks of the training of the mental facilities^xxxvii. Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) considered the aim of education to be to enable the child to find the law that rules his life within himself. Children should be education not with reference to the present condition of things, but rather with regard to the possible improved state of the human race. “Experience teaches us that the ultimate aim of Princes is not the promotion of the good of mankind but the wellbeing of their own State and attainment of their demands”. When they provide money for education and enterprise, they reserve to themselves to control the plans. Therefore the management of schools should be left entirely to the judgement of the most intelligent experts^xxxviii.

There were also those who looked beyond authority and looked toward the ascertation of truth. One of these was Peter Abelard. He stressed the need for constant questioning as the key to wisdom. ‘For through doubt we are led to inquiry, and by inquiry we are led to truth.’ He urged that one should seek the truth by judging how far the view of an authority stands up to scrutiny.^xxxix Another who resented the uncritical appeal to authority, was Peter Ramus (1515 -1572)^xl The guiding principle of his constructive policy was utility. Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) accepted nothing as true which did not approve itself to the mind with clearness and distinction. He reduced every problem to its simplest elements and proceeded step by step from assured knowledge of what is simple to assured knowledge to what is complex, covering all facts in comprehensive review^xli. Michael de Montaigne argued that education was not for children to grow up into men of learning but to make them wiser in the conduct of their own lives. The best method is to make learning a personal passion by turning every lesson into an exercise in ones own judgement^xlii

A range of views that has governed the development of education throughout the ages. The first stage of my project was to examine these views. The next stage will be to consider and comment upon the material that I have assembled. I refer you to my next blog.

Scribart 12.11.19

iThis article is based on a reading, and analysis of the book written by William Boyd and revised and brought up to date in the later chapters by Edmund j King. As stated it is a history of Western education, this means that it does not include Chinese, Indian or education in the Muslem world. It is a general history of education in all its aspects. My study is concerned only with the aims and purpose of why we educate. This means I have extracted from the general aspect of the history of education those particular points with which I am concerned. In some instances this is a direct extraction in others it is what is inferred from other aspects of education. I have endeavoured as far as possible to restrict my presentation to those matters which directly affect my aim. I have endeavoured to give appropriate acknowledgement either in the text or in end notes.

iiBoyd, The History of Western Education pp 26 - 42

iiiBoyd p431

ivFor greater detail on the role of the State and its relation to civil society see Lenin ‘The State and Revolution’.

vBoyd p 228

viBoyd p 231/2

viiBoyd p 312

viiiBoyd p 463

ixBoyd p 87/8

xBoyd p 127/8

xiBoyd pp 302/3

xiiBoyd p 54

xiiiBoyd p 171

xivBoyd pp 175 -178

xvBoyd pp 175 - 178

xviBoyd pp 179 - 181

xviiBoyd p187

xviiiBoyd pp 188 - 190

xixBoyd pp 198/9

xxBoyd p 204

xxiBoyd pp 338 -349

xxiiBoyd pp 391/2

xxiiiBoyd pp 210 - 213

xxiv Boyd pp215/6

xxv Boyd pp287/8

xxviBoyd pp 333-338

xxvii Boyd p 201-203

xxviii Boyd pp382 - 383

xxix Boyd pp 368/9

xxx Boyd pp 270 - 273

xxxi Boyd pp289 - 291

xxxiiBoyd pp 314 - 316

xxxiii Boyd pp 318 - 328

xxxiv Boyd pp 388 - 390

xxxvBoyd p 234-237

xxxvi Boyd p 244

xxxvii Boyd pp 273 - 279

xxxviii Boyd pp 317 -318

xxxixBoyd p137

xl Boyd 221/2

xliBoyd 255/6

xlii Boyd pp 223 - 228